Sucrose

**1. Sucrose Overview:**
– Etymology: Coined in 1857 by William Miller from French sucre and suffix -ose
– Abbreviation: Suc in scientific literature; saccharose is an obsolete name
– Physical and Chemical Properties: Composed of glucose and fructose with an ether bond; crystallizes in monoclinic space group P2; purity measured by polarimetry
– Thermal and Oxidative Degradation: Decomposes at 186°C to form caramel; combusts to carbon dioxide and water; various reactions with different substances
– Synthesis and Biosynthesis: Formed by plants, algae, cyanobacteria via precursors; end product of photosynthesis; also synthesized in 1953

**2. Production and Consumption:**
– Historical Background: Table sugar’s ancient origins in India and China; mechanization in the late 18th century
– Global Production: 185 million tonnes in 2017; 80% from sugarcane, rest from sugar beets
– Major Producers: India, Brazil, EU, Thailand, China; beet sugar in cooler climates
– Industrialization Impact: Increased sucrose consumption in processed foods
– High-Fructose Corn Syrup: Cheaper alternative affecting sucrose consumption trends

**3. Sugar Types and Processing:**
– Types: Main component of table sugar; other sources like date palm, sorghum, sugar maple
– Production Process: Extraction from crops with hot water; centrifugation for crystallization
– Brazilian Agriculture: Leading sugarcane producer; significant contribution to economy
– Cane vs. Beet Sugar: Differences in production, water usage, residues, and labeling
– Culinary Sugars: Different refining methods and crystal sizes for various culinary needs

**4. Nutritional Aspects and Health Concerns:**
– Nutritional Information: Composition, calorie content, micronutrients in fully refined sugar
– Metabolism: Breakdown in humans, contribution to metabolic issues and tooth decay
– UN Dietary Recommendation: Guidelines for free sugar intake and its impact on health
– Religious Concerns: Use of bone char in sugar refining and kosher considerations
– Measurement: Techniques like Brix degrees and refractometry for sugar concentration

**5. Market Dynamics and International Trade:**
– International Sugar Market Prices: World market trends, G20 countries’ stance, trade agreements
– WTO Rulings: Impact on EU and US sugar regimes, reforms, influence of lobbyists
– Premiums and Trade Schemes: Fairtrade initiatives, government programs, EU policy changes
– References on Sucrose: Various sources providing information on sucrose
– Historical Context and Labor Practices: Significance of sugar in history, labor practices, and related studies.

Sucrose (Wikipedia)

Sucrose, a disaccharide, is a sugar composed of glucose and fructose subunits. It is produced naturally in plants and is the main constituent of white sugar. It has the molecular formula C
₁₂H
₂₂O
₁₁.

Sucrose

Names
IUPAC name β-D-Fructofuranosyl α-D-glucopyranoside
Systematic IUPAC name (2R,3R,4S,5S,6R)-2-{[(2S,3S,4S,5R)-3,4-Dihydroxy-2,5-bis(hydroxymethyl)oxolan-2-yl]oxy}-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-3,4,5-triol
Other names Sugar; Saccharose; α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-fructofuranoside; β-D-fructofuranosyl-(2→1)-α-D-glucopyranoside; β-(2S,3S,4S,5R)-fructofuranosyl-α-(1R,2R,3S,4S,5R)-glucopyranoside; α-(1R,2R,3S,4S,5R)-glucopyranosyl-β-(2S,3S,4S,5R)-fructofuranoside; Dodecacarbon monodecahydrate; ((2R,3R,4S,5S,6R)-2-[(2S,3S,4S,5R)-3,4-dihydroxy-2,5-bis(hydroxymethyl)oxapent-2-yl]oxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxahexane-3,4,5-triol)
Identifiers
CAS Number	57-50-1 Y
3D model (JSmol)	Interactive image
ChEBI	CHEBI:17992 Y
ChEMBL	ChEMBL253582 Y
ChemSpider	5768 Y
DrugBank	DB02772 Y
ECHA InfoCard	100.000.304
EC Number	200-334-9
IUPHAR/BPS	5411
KEGG	C00089
PubChem CID	5988
RTECS number	WN6500000
UNII	C151H8M554 Y
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)	DTXSID2021288
InChI InChI=1S/C12H22O11/c13-1-4-6(16)8(18)9(19)11(21-4)23-12(3-15)10(20)7(17)5(2-14)22-12/h4-11,13-20H,1-3H2/t4-,5-,6-,7-,8+,9-,10+,11-,12+/m1/s1 Y Key: CZMRCDWAGMRECN-UGDNZRGBSA-N Y InChI=1/C12H22O11/c13-1-4-6(16)8(18)9(264115619)11(21-4)23-12(3-15)10(20)7(17)5(2-14)22-12/h4-11,13-20H,1-3H2/t4-,5-,6-,7-,8+,9-,10+,11-,12+/m1/s1
SMILES O1[C@H](CO)[C@@H](O)[C@H](O)[C@@H](O)[C@H]1O[C@@]2(O[C@@H]([C@@H](O)[C@@H]2O)CO)CO
Properties
Chemical formula	C 12H 22O 11
Molar mass	342.30 g/mol
Appearance	white solid
Density	1.587 g/cm3 (0.0573 lb/cu in), solid
Melting point	None; decomposes at 186 °C (367 °F; 459 K)
Solubility in water	~200 g/dL (25 °C (77 °F))
log P	−3.76
Structure
Crystal structure	Monoclinic
Space group	P21
Thermochemistry
Std enthalpy of formation (ΔfH⦵298)	−2,226.1 kJ/mol (−532.1 kcal/mol)
Std enthalpy of combustion (ΔcH⦵298)	1,349.6 kcal/mol (5,647 kJ/mol) (Higher heating value)
Hazards
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)	0 1 0
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
LD50 (median dose)	29700 mg/kg (oral, rat)
NIOSH (US health exposure limits):
PEL (Permissible)	TWA 15 mg/m3 (total) TWA 5 mg/m3 (resp)
REL (Recommended)	TWA 10 mg/m3 (total) TWA 5 mg/m3 (resp)
IDLH (Immediate danger)	N.D.
Safety data sheet (SDS)	ICSC 1507
Related compounds
Related compounds	Lactose Maltose
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa). Y verify (what is YN ?) Infobox references

For human consumption, sucrose is extracted and refined from either sugarcane or sugar beet. Sugar mills – typically located in tropical regions near where sugarcane is grown – crush the cane and produce raw sugar which is shipped to other factories for refining into pure sucrose. Sugar beet factories are located in temperate climates where the beet is grown, and process the beets directly into refined sugar. The sugar-refining process involves washing the raw sugar crystals before dissolving them into a sugar syrup which is filtered and then passed over carbon to remove any residual colour. The sugar syrup is then concentrated by boiling under a vacuum and crystallized as the final purification process to produce crystals of pure sucrose that are clear, odorless, and sweet.

Sugar is often an added ingredient in food production and recipes. About 185 million tonnes of sugar were produced worldwide in 2017.

Sucrose is particularly dangerous as a risk factor for tooth decay because Streptococcus mutans bacteria convert it into a sticky, extracellular, dextran-based polysaccharide that allows them to cohere, forming plaque. Sucrose is the only sugar that bacteria can use to form this sticky polysaccharide.